Persisting servitude and gradual shifts towards recognition and dignity of labour: A study of employers of domestic workers in Delhi and Mumbai

Introduction:

Domestic work is one of the oldest forms of work, yet it often remains largely divested of basic labour and human rights due to its unique personal and spatial nature. In India, the culture of servitude is deeply rooted, historically associated with feudal households, but it has evolved into a middle-class necessity in urban metropolitan areas. This shift is driven by rapid urbanisation, the erosion of joint family structures, and the rise of dual-career nuclear households, where domestic workers enable women to participate in the paid workforce. Despite their critical role in the “global care economy,” domestic workers continue to face vulnerabilities, low wages, and a lack of formal legal protection.

Aims and Objectives: The research aims to understand the employers’ perspective on domestic workers in Delhi and Mumbai. It seeks to explore the dynamics of demand, hiring mechanisms, wage fixation, and the working conditions of women in this sector. Additionally, the study assesses employer awareness of legal provisions and their attitudes toward domestic workers’ rights and unionisation. The ultimate goal is to provide empirical evidence to inform policies that can accord this work more security, recognition, and dignity.

Methodology: The study utilised a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews.

• Listing Survey: A preliminary listing was conducted for 6,010 households (4,041 in Delhi and 1,969 in Mumbai) to identify those hiring domestic help.
• Sample Survey: Detailed data was collected from 1,023 employer households (506 in Delhi and 517 in Mumbai).
• Qualitative Data: The team conducted 50 pilot case studies across various class backgrounds. Interviews were also held with other stakeholders, including placement agencies, trade unions, and NGOs.
• Stratification: Localities were selected based on income categories (high, upper-middle, and lower-middle) to ensure a diverse representation of employers.

Findings:

• Demand Dynamics: Hiring is strongly linked to nuclear family structures, households with working mothers, and those with elderly members.
• Workforce Composition: Approximately 90% of employers hire part-time workers, while only about 5% each hire full-time live-out or live-in workers.
• Recruitment Channels: Hiring remains overwhelmingly informal; 50.8% of employers find workers through neighbours and 21.4% through other domestic workers. Only 1.5% use registered agencies.
• Employer Preferences: There is a gradual shift toward prioritizing work-related traits like appearance/tidiness (34.9%), age (25.7%), and competence (13.5%) over traditional factors such as caste or religion.
• Wages and Remuneration: Wages are highly varied and task-segmented. Part-time workers earn an average of Rs. 1,500 per month, while full-time/live-in workers average approximately Rs. 5,000 per month.
• Legal Awareness: There is a significant lack of awareness regarding legal obligations; only 5.2% of employers knew about minimum wage provisions and 5.9% were aware of legally permissible working hours.
• Attitudes Toward Rights: Most employers are against the formation of workers’ unions, fearing they would raise “unnecessary demands”.

Policy Recommendations:

• Legislative Inclusion: Formally recognize domestic work as a legitimate labour market activity to protect workers from being undervalued.
• Minimum Wage Standards: Define and notify minimum wages based on specific tasks or hourly rates to ensure fair compensation.
• Regulating Agencies: Establish stringent mechanisms to regulate placement agencies and prevent unscrupulous practices.
• Institutional Registration: Move the responsibility for registration from the police to Labour Departments to foster a work-oriented rather than a criminalized approach.
• Ensuring Basic Rights: Legislate for mandatory weekly offs, social protection (like RSBY), and maternity benefits.
• Grievance Redressal: Establish fair and just mechanisms for resolving disputes within the personalized domain of the household.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Involve Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs) and NGOs in setting standards for decent work and social protection at the community level.

This study underscores that while there is an increasing demand for domestic labor, the prevailing servitude-based mindset must be addressed through comprehensive policy and legislative frameworks to ensure the dignity of labor.